Sequencing techniques for sequencing nucleic acids including RNA have been developed. Sequencing techniques include, for example, sequencing-by-synthesis. Sequencing-by-synthesis or cycle sequencing can be accomplished by stepwise addition of nucleotides containing, for example, a cleavable or photobleachable dye label as described, for example, in U.S. Pat. No. 7,427,673; U.S. Pat. No. 7,414,116; WO 04/018497; WO 91/06678; WO 07/123744; and U.S. Pat. No. 7,057,026, the disclosures of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entireties. Alternatively, pyrosequencing techniques may be employed. Pyrosequencing detects the release of inorganic pyrophosphate (PPi) as particular nucleotides are incorporated into the nascent strand (Ronaghi et al., (1996) “Real-time DNA sequencing using detection of pyrophosphate release.” Analytical Biochemistry 242(1), 84-9; Ronaghi, M. (2001) “Pyrosequencing sheds light on DNA sequencing.” Genome Res. 11(1), 3-11; Ronaghi, M., Uhlen, M. and Nyren, P. (1998) “A sequencing method based on real-time pyrophosphate.” Science 281(5375), 363; U.S. Pat. No. 6,210,891; U.S. Pat. No. 6,258,568; and U.S. Pat. No. 6,274,320, the disclosures of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entireties). In pyrosequencing, released PPi can be detected by being immediately converted to adenosine triphosphate (ATP) by ATP sulfurylase, and the level of ATP generated is detected via luciferase-produced photons.
Sequencing techniques also include sequencing by ligation techniques. Such techniques use DNA ligase to incorporate oligonucleotides and identify the incorporation of such oligonucleotides and are described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,969,488; U.S. Pat. No. 6,172,218; and U.S. Pat. No. 6,306,597; the disclosures of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entireties. Other sequencing techniques include, for example, fluorescent in situ sequencing (FISSEQ), and Massively Parallel Signature Sequencing (MPSS).
Preparation of DNA samples for sequencing can be relatively straightforward and include using transposition reactions to fragment and add adaptor sequences to the DNA fragments, which simplifies the sample preparation process. See, e.g., International Publication No. WO 2010/048605, which is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. By contrast, current protocols for sequencing RNA samples employ a sample preparation method that converts the RNA in the sample into a double-stranded cDNA format prior to sequencing. Thus, preparation of RNA samples for sequencing is more labor intensive. In addition, current protocols are less than optimal in their ability to preserve strand-specific information. More specifically, most methods are not able to preserve strand information about the direction of the original single-stranded RNA molecule after being converted into double stranded cDNA. Preserving strand-specific information is important for annotation of new genes and for determining gene expression levels. Some methods attempt to preserve strand specific information by ligating adaptors to the ends of single-stranded RNA molecules. The adaptors can have sequences that provide distinguishable information for both ends of the double stranded cDNA generated from the RNA molecules. However, this method has disadvantages. For example, if the RNA molecules are fragmented, after fragmentation the internal parts of the molecules lose their directional (i.e., strand specific) information.